Senators and Representatives Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Senators and Representatives - Research Paper Example The voters have tended to choose presidential candidates from the said party for three elections already. Apparently, this only gives the impression that the district may well be considered as a bulwark of the Republican Party. The presidential elections since the year 2000 provide figures that proved this conclusion. In 2000, when George W. Bush ran for president, he got 37 percent of the votes. As he continued to banner the war on terror, and riding on the bandwagon effect of the American response to 9/11, President Bush managed to be reelected. The 7th District of Virginia produced 38 percent of its registered voters in favor of the incumbent chief executive. While John McCain was very unpopular in other states, in the district, he and vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin were able to obtain a majority of 53.16 percent of the votes (Virginia State Board of Elections, n.d.). This obviously made the tandem win in the district. All these figures only prove how the district’ s population has the tendency to favor one party over the other. The voters in the district also favor congressional candidates who belong to the Republican Party. From January 1971 until the present, the district has always had a Republican congressman. This means that the GOP has been dominant in the counties composing for about four decades already. However, this is not the case when it comes to the voters’ choice of senator. In the 2008 senatorial elections, Sen. Mark Warner, a Democrat, won over Republican James Gilmore III with a huge margin of 88,461 votes. Sen. Warner took 62.25 percent of the total votes (Virginia State Board of Elections, n.d.). In the 2000 elections, however, a Republican, Sen. G.F. Allen won with a great majority also. As the presidential elections would show, it is clear that the 7th district of Virginia leans to the Republicans when it comes to choosing the country’s chief executive. This is the same tendency that is displayed in congress ional elections, particularly when it comes to selecting a representative in the lower house. Its choice for senator, however, has changed only in the last senatorial elections. It remains to be seen whether this signifies a start of a new trend. Rep. Eric Cantor is the district’s congressman. He has been considered as the Republican Party’s fast-rising leaders. Aside from being a lawyer, Rep. Cantor is also a businessman. Prior to being elected a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, he was a member of the state of Virginia’s legislative body. He was first noticed on Virginia’s political scene when he became part of the House of Delegates from 1992 until 2000 (Project Vote Smart, n.d.). In 2000, he was elected as congressman. It did not take long before he immediately became prominent in the halls of Congress. He first became popular among fellow Republicans in Congress which resulted in him being named as chief deputy majority whip for the party in 2002-2006. He later held the position of chief deputy minority whip in 2006-2008. As he became more accepted as a party leader, Rep. Cantor became minority whip for about two years in 2008. This year, his influence became even broader when he became the majority leader of the House of Representatives. Considering his growing influence in the Republican Party, it is only expected that Rep. Cantor’

The Advantages Of Personal Management Skills

The Advantages Of Personal Management Skills It is extremely important to manage ourselves in order to be a better person and achieve our goals in life. Nobody is always perfect, every one has some strengths and some weakness, but we all should look for opportunities to convert our weakness into strength. This portfolio contains every thing about me, starting from scratch till the present and also about the future. While doing this portfolio I came across many new skills about myself, I went through many management test, EQ test, verbal as well as numerical test etc. REFLECTION Reflection exercise attached in appendix- page 1 [Refer to appendix- page 1] PERSONEL ASPIRATION REVIEW BACKGROUND My name is Karan Seth, 20 years of age. I am hardworking and sincer. My school principal, where I studied for 9 years also believes that. [Refer to appendix- page 2] and believe in myself. I have never travelled anywhere without my parents untill one day my father deicided that I will be studying in London after my ‘o levels in India. WHY DID YOU CHOOSE TO STUDY FOR A DEGREE I have been studying in Delhi Public School and had english as the medium of education since my childhood. In India the education system a bit different from here in UK. The student have to decide if they wish to go for the science or the commerece stream in their 11th standards and only those students who get more than a 70% overall along with good marks in science in class 10th are allowed to opt for sicence in 11th. I was hard worker and wanted to become a engineer in future. I got 70% aggreate marks and I got 75 in science in paricular [Refer to appendix page 3], which helped in to opt for science in class 11th. Science was not as pretty as it looked. I did not realize that my apptitude was not the theories and models, instead my interest was in knowing the concepts and appling in real life. When I did not perform well, the principle gave me an option of choosing commerece, if I promised to work really hard and live up to the expectations as I will be doing two years of education in one year. I put in all my efforts worked day and night. Finally at the end the result said it all. I got [70%] almost same marks as the students studying the same course for two years in class 12th. [Refer to appendix- page 4] And 75 in business studies in particular and 64 in Economics. Therefore, getting into a Bachelors of business administration degree was because my own interst. My father being my inspiration, I decided to do something which the world should be proud of. This degree will provide me with all the skills and knowledge I need in order to become a Marketing/Finance manager. The degree is fast tracked, economical and well managed. HOW DOES THIS FIT IN YOUR LIFE CAREER PLANS The bachelors in business administration is basically the first step in the ladder to my goal in life. In order to become a manager in Finance/Marketing I had to go through this degree programm. REVIEWING OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE For the future the next step in the ladder is doing Masters in business administration from London Business School. Persuing masters in LBS is a big deal as it requires a capital of  £42,000 [Refere appendix- page 5]and 2-3 years of working experience to get into a good university. PLANNING AHEAD In future I want to go for either Masters in business administration or do Msc in Finance. But before doing any of these courses I have to have a two years of job experince after my bachelors. So, I will apply for graduates jobs in London after my degree and gain the experience in my relevant field. SWOT ANALYSIS ON MYSELF STRENGTH: Can do attitude outgoing Determination Common sense WEAKNESS: Teamwork Presentations OPPORTUNITY: I can change my weakness to my strength by this degree. ‘Practice makes a man perfect- I will make sure that I work in teams and perform group presentations in class. THREATS: Not scoring a good mark/degree in the present course Competition in the market [future industry] Political issue regarding visa Finance PERSONEL SKILLS REVIEW â€Å"To be skilled is to be able to perform a learned activity well and at will† (Cotrell S. 2003) RITE MORE MANAGEMENT MODEL According to the management gurus including Henny Fayol , Peter Drucker, Fredrik Taylor, Marry P. Follet, Charles Hndy etc. have a certain things in common that is skills required at workplace. The key skills required at a modern workplace are: Planning, time management skills, communication skills, decision making skills, IT skills †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ MANAGEMENT SKILLS BY FAYOL WHAT MANAGEMENT SKILLS DO U HAVE In order to find out more about my management skills, I went through various managerial test in order to find out my skills. Leadership skills- The test gave out 18 attributes of leadership, which were organised into four main dimensions- Creating the future, Ideas into action, Enthusing , growing and appreciating others and clarifying values. Out of 18 my top six attributes were: Visonary, Opportunity awareness, single-mindedness, proactive, enabler and leacy builder. Out of 18, the four lowest scoring attributes were: consistent, enthuser, values champion and team builder. [Refer to appendix- page 6] I had a module of leadership and group working in college in which I secured 72% marks. The study in the module included various management and leadership rolesin the modern workplace. The assesment was on the topic that does a manager requires leadership skills. [Refer to appendix- page 7] Learning skills- I performed two learning activities, one from the Kolb learning cycle and other one from Bells learning model. Kolbs learning cycle has Activist, Reflector, Theorist and pragmatist. After performing the activity, I came to know that I am a activist. [Refer to appendix- page 8] IT skills- I had a module named IT skills in the college and I secured the highest marks in the class. It skills module included †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. IT is important in all fields. People can not even think of spending one day without IT and its applications. For a student, a laptop is his best friend as it allows him to be in touch with the world. Therefore, in order to do MBA, I have to give various online test and in my workplace as well dealing with information technology is unavoidale . [Refer to appendix- page 9] Identification and execution In order to identify the problem, one has to be very critical in his approach and analyse the data and present it in various graphs forms to have a better idea. I had a test of Data collection and interpretation in my degree in which I secured 79% which is extremely good as it will help me in case of analysing the companies financial conditions. [Refer to appendix- page 10] PERSONAL PERCEPTION AND VALUES I have a high values and morales. I believe that every one should strive and work to be the best but sometimes I do feel that competition should not be there in the society as it tends to become a burden for student who has pressure form his family and friends to do his best and beat the others, people forget that only one person can be the winner and everybody does not have the same way of thinking and cannot be best at everything as some might be good in reading, some might be good in writing. I often think about myself and future, my current skills and the ones which I need to develop. I did a few self-evaluation activities which gave me a better picture of myself, answering my current skills and qualities [Refer to appendix- page 11]. My other developed skills required in the future are: Planning- planning is deciding in advance what to do how to do and for whom is to do. It bridges the gap between where we are and we wish to be. It is required at all levels of management; it is an on going process through out our lives, which is very important from the point of view of achieving the desired goals. I makes plans even for small things like spending the vacations with friends, planning makes me feel comfortable and relaxed. During college days I use to submit all my assignments on time. This will really help me in the workplace. [Refer appendix- Page 12] Decision making- it is the process leading to the selection of a course of action among alternatives. Every decision making produces a final choice. It can be an action or an opinion. It begins when we need to do something but we do not know what therefore, decision making is a reasoning process which can be rational or irrational. Writing skills- In context to communication skill, the other developed skill which I have is writing skills, I can really express my self better in the written part of speech, I have taken part in various essay writing competitions and won the first and sometimes second prize as well. I can pen down my emotions and feeling on the paper very easily, basically while writing I can really go into the depth of the topic. Team worker- He is the person who is most aware of the needs of the team, the concern and the needs of the members. I do not feel comfortable working in groups as I feel every person has a different approach towards life and have a different set of ideas, so I do not think they are able to solve a particular problem or can reach to a final conclusion for a problem. Thus I need to develop my negative skill to positive and hence I need to develop this skill of mine. Some of my developed skills are from my school days where I used to have my daily time table table for my day to day activity, this in return helped me to become punctual and I understud the importance of time and I understood that once time passes it never comes back, therefore every second of our life is very precious. Where as regarding my decision making skill, I developed at my work place, when ever I have been given more work to do at one time, the I have to set my own priorities of work, which means I had to take decisions on my own as to which work should I do first keeping in mind their importance and dead line. As far as writing skills are concerned I can really express my self better in the written part of speech, I have taken part in various essay writing competitions and won prizes. I can pen down my emotions and feeling on the paper very easily and I can write along with thinking about it. CARRER PLANNING Vocational qualifications In future, I need some more knowledge and education in order to apply for Masters in Finance, I need to do a course apart from my Business degree, some courses like ACCA and in case of Marketing I might have to do CIM- Charted institute of Marketing. Both are flexible courses and are well recognised in their own fields all over the world. CIM- It is Europes leading provider of marketing ans sales courses. The aim of CIM is to develop individuals marketing and sales skills through distance learning courses. It is the worlds largest marketing body working with the marketing profession, government and industry to develop International business. ACCA- It is a world class body of knowledge, in every 8 minutes someone registers as an ACCA student in the world. ACCA has been established for more than 100 years now and gain a standard reputation in the field of professional education. Fee structure of CIM as per course COURSES INTERNATINAL APPICATION UK APPLICANTION Intro Certificate in Marketing  £85  £120 Prof Certificate in Marketing  £85 120 Prof Diploma in Marketing  £125  £160 Prof Postgradz Diploma  £165  £200 In ACCA, the course length depends upon the candidate and the fee depends on the length of the course and the exams taken. THE WORLD OF WORK JOB MARKET ANALYSIS In future I would either gofor RETAIL INDUSTRY. Marketing or finance. Since, I have been working as a sales advisor in Marks Spenser from more than two year and people know me as well. The management is happy with my performance as I has a pay raise. Sometimes when there is no supervisor, I also perform the role of a supervisor in their absence. In my near future I would like to get into Retail industry with either finance or Marketing sector. [Refer appendix: pagge 13] Paradigm Shift for Retail Focus Over the last decade or so, retailers world over have focused their resources to create efficiencies in their sourcing, supply chains and store operations with the purpose of reducing the operating costs and maintaining a hold on their thin margins. [http://www.dmreview.com/dmdirect/20060707/1057744-1.html ] The list of the biggest retailers in the world is dominated by the grocers: Wal-Mart (USA) Carrefour (France) The Home Depot (USA) METRO Group (Germany) Tesco (UK) SWOT STRENGTH: Retal is the second-largest industry both in number of employees as well as number of establishments in US. The industry generates $3.8 trillion in retail sales annual. The largest retailer in the world is Wal-Mart with more than $312 billion sales per year. Wal-Mart employees 400,000 employees all over the world, including 1.3 milion in US itself. WEAKNESS OPPORTUNITY The retail market in the UK is considered to be mature so it is unlikely to see the large expansion that occurred in the 1980s. Large retailers are likely to remain the dominant players while trying to increase their market share through mergers and acquisitions. Premium operators such as John Lewis, Waitrose and Marks Spencer, with their focus on high-value, high-quality, diversified product range and customer service, will also continue their strong trading performance. New systems will enable retailers to find out how shoppers choose goods. Cameras catch the customers gaze and determine the effect of particular colours, special offers and placing, as well as how many brands are considered and for how long. THREATS : Internet shopping soared by 50% in the ten weeks leading up to Christmas 2005 and shoppers spent  £4.9billion online in the same. Consumers are expanding their horizons in terms of the products theyre willing to shop for online, with clothes, health and beauty, books and CDs being the main drivers. Safety and security is a concern for retailers and consumers. Secure browsers and sophisticated websites will alleviate these fears in the future. Internet shopping will not, however, spell the end for shops. People will continue to see shopping in stores as an enjoyable social event. FACTS FIGURES: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/ According to the national Statistics, done in June 2005 the rtail industry has employed 2.9 million people which is 1 in every 9 or 11% of the working UK population. UK retail sales were approximately  £260billion in 2005. 11% of all VAT-registered businesses in the UK are retailers, with the total number currently at 180,875. UK retail sales were  £265 billion in 2007, larger than the combined economies of Denmark and Portugal. Retail sales account for 1/5 of the UK economy. The retail sector generates almost 8% of the Gross Domestic Product of the UK. More than a third of consumer spending goes through shops. Sales over the internet account for less than 4% of total retail sales, despite strong growth in recent years. The retail industry employed over 3.0 million people as at the end of December 2007. This equates to 11% of the total UK workforce. Over the last five years, employment in retailing has grown by 50,402 CHANGING WORKPLACE CARRER PATHS CURRENT AND FUTURE WORK PATTERNS PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN FIVE AREAS TO DEVELOP N SET S.M.A.R.T TARGET A personal development plan helps a student to : Improve their general skills for study and career development. Become more effective independent and confident self-directed learners. Encourage continous / lifelong learning and take self responsibility. Identify their strength and weaknesses. Area of skill behaviour you would like to develop further. Why it is important to you in relation to your ambitions. How you will work on this development. Who or what can help or support you in this respect. Numerical skills [Refer to appendix page: 14] [Refer to appendix page: 15] class teachers boli good tha . Verbal skills [Refer to appendix page: 16] Want to work as a finance/marketing manager. I need good communicational skills and good command over my vocabulary in order to communicate with my clients at workplace. The inter-personal skills mainly develops by practice, the more we communicate with people, more effect we will have in our language, so I will start giving presentations, taking part in all kinds of debate competition as well. I can only help Myself to improve over my less developed inter-personal skills. As nobody else know me better than myself. [Refer to appendix page: 14] Time management [Refer to appendix page: 17, 18] . s S S [Refer to appendix page: 19] [Refer to appendix page: 20] Team-work skils [Refer to appendix page: 6] S S S PSYCHOMETRIC TEST The types of psychometric test are: Ability test- Ability test measure a persons potential, for instance to learn the skills needed for a new jobor to cope up with the demands of a training course. Test is divded into four main sections- numerical ability, verbal ability, non-verbal ability and spatial ability. An example of ability test would be GAT- General Ability Test. Aptitude test- An aptitude test os more job specific. These test tend to be job related and have names that include jo title such as the programmers Aptitude Series (SHL). [Refer to appendix page: 16] Personality test- Some people have distunguish features from others, which maked them unique MBTI TEST [Refer appendix- page 21] EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE or EQ [220] Emotional Intelligent as defined by Thorndike, is ‘the ability to understand and relate to people. Daniel Goleman (1996) says ‘the capacity for recognising our own feeling and those of others, for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions well in ourself and in others. Now, EQ is totally different from the cognitive intelligence, i.e. IQ. IQ is a measure of an individuals personalinformation bank- ones memory, vocabulary and visual motor co-ordination. Emotional Intelligence involves: Knowing the appropiate feeling for the circumstances. Experiancing the appropiate feeling for the circumstances Expressing feeling apprpiate to the circumstances. Making opportunities to express feelings [Refer to appendix page: 22] (S. Cottrell, 2003) CV APPENDIX Curriculum Vitae KARAN SETH 30,GURNEY ROAD, STRATFORD, LONDON. E15 1SH PHONE: 07930464295 EMAIL: [emailprotected] NATIONALITY: Indian DATE OF BIRTH: 13/10/1987 EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS: Year Qualifications School/College/University 2006-2008 BA (HONS) Business Management University of Wales, Lampeter 2006 Higher Secondary Examinations (10+2) Delhi Public School, Kanpur 2004 Secondary Examinations (year 10) Delhi Public School, Kanpur WORK EXPERIENCE: March 2007, Marks Spenser, London, UK Team Leader / Sales Advisor Ensures services provided by the department are always carried out to defined standard with the utmost efficiency, consistency and courtesy as detailed in the department operational manual. To handle all customer complaints and inquiries in a courteous and efficient manner, following through to make sure problems are resolved satisfactorily. To ensure that all employees in the outlet deliver the brand promise and provide exceptional guest service at all times. To assist in the inventory management and ongoing maintenance of stocks and inventory taking as required. Training of new joinees according to the standards laid down by Marks Spenser. Maintaining positive guest and colleague interaction with good working relationships. Monitoring operating supplies and reduce spoilage and wastage. Ensures the place of work surrounding area is hygienic and organized at all times. Motivating and leading a team of committed professionals to achieve 100% in customer service. Worked part-time as a Food and Beverage Assistant at Landmark, Kanpur, India, 2005 ACHIEVEMENTS Secured 1ST class in the college in BBA in the present term. Secured above 70% in aggregate all through the educational tenure. Served as the President of the Student Union in the year 2004 -2006 at Delhi Public School, India. Won many Inter-school Sports and debate competitions in India. PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES: Excellent communication skills, good Inter-personal skills and a proactive problem solver. Value teamwork, have good team building skills and can communicate effectively with all levels of employees. Customer-oriented, friendly, honest, fair and approachable. Have a positive â€Å"can do† attitude, highly motivated, innovative, passionate and seeking opportunity to be multi-skilled and trained. Established leadership skills cultivated through intensive training as a Management Trainee. Ability to adapt to changing environment and desire to work on new projects. High degree of integrity. Possess the ability to perform best under pressure. DOCUMENTS ATTACHED SHL verbal test Emotional Intelligence Numerical test MBTI- myers -brigs Reflection exercise Time management Self evaluation- current skillls Inventory profile for management skills Learning styles inventory School document Marksheet class 12 Marketsheet class 10 Reference letters- teacher and principle Assignment feedback sheets Stress diary Pay raise letter with pay slip useful links Cottrell Stella (1999). The study skills handbook. Published by : Palgrave Macmillan. in New York . US. Cottrell Stella (2003). Skills for success. Published by: Palgrave Macmillian. New York , US. http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdyhlp.html [TIME N STUDY SKILLS] http://www.quintcareers.com/career_assessment.html [COLLECTION OF MANY TEST . GOOD ONE ] http://careerplanning.about.com/od/careertests/Free_Self_Assessment_Tools_Online.htm [OK OK] TEST LINKZ: http://www.inspiredleadership.org.uk/ [NUMERICAL N VERBAL] http://www.myskillsprofile.com/ [LEADERSHIP, EMOTIONAL INTELL, TEAM ROLES, PERSONALITY PROFILE, ] [HAVE TO PAY] http://retailindustry.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?zi=1/XJsdn=retailindustrycdn=moneytm=1108gps=182_807_868_568f=21su=p554.2.150.ip_tt=11bt=1bts=1zu=http%3A//www.brc.org.uk/latestdata.asp%3FiCat%3D52%26sCat%3DRETAIL%2bKEY+FACTS [facts n fingures] http://www.dmreview.com/dmdirect/20060707/1057744-1.html http://retailindustry.about.com/od/abouttheretailindustry/p/retail_industry.htm http://www.shoppertrak.com/index.php http://www.ca.courses-careers.com/retail.htm http://www.prospects.ac.uk/cms/ShowPage/Home_page/Explore_job_sectors/Retail/overview/p!egiLLL http://www.personalitypathways.com/dom-ni.html http://www.personalitypathways.com/ http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdyhlp.html [IMAGE FROM LINK] management model ‘Fayols 14 principles;

Diana Ross :: essays research papers

Diana Ross Diana Ross was born in 1944. Emerging from the housing projects in Detroit to become an international superstar, she gained prominence first as a member of the supremes, then as a solo artist. The mention of her name evokes the indelible image of the broadly smiling diva, the long hair, sequined gowns, etc. Ross first recorded on the small lupine label in 1959, as a member of the Primettes. The group signed to Motown in1961, and later changed their names to the supremes. In 1963, all the singles released by the supremes featured Diana Ross as the lead singer. That year they first hit the top 40 with â€Å"when the love light starts shining through his eyes†. In 1964 the supremes single â€Å" where did our love go† began a run of five consecutive #1 singles. Thereafter where a series of #1 hits such as, â€Å"the happenings†, â€Å"baby love†, â€Å" stop! in the name of love†, â€Å" you can’t hurry love†, and you keep me hanging on†. Someday well be together was Ross’ last hit with the supremes before going solo. Ross moved to California to launch her solo career. Her reworking of the Ashford and Simpson standard â€Å"ain’t no mountain high enough† became their first #1 hit as a solo artist. In 1971, Her first child Rhonda was born later announced as berry Gordy child (the founder of Motown). Ros married her first husband, Robert Ellis Siberstein, a union that produced two children, Tracee (from girlfriends) and Chudney Ellis. In 1972 Diana Ross made her first debut portraying the late jazz singer Billie holiday in â€Å" lady sings the blues†. The film was successful, and Ross was received an Oscar nomination for her performance.

Pennsylvania Sovereign Immunity Statute Essay

Rooted in the history of common law in England was the immunity of the sovereign from the processes of the law (Christie and Meeks, 1990). However, this idea of some man or body of men above the law was said to be objectionable to the English concept of justice (Christie and Meeks, 1990). â€Å"The King can do no wrong† was often the explanation for the said immunity but denoted more the lack of adequate redress at law than absence of capacity to violate the law (Christie and Meeks, 1990). Thus, the agitation for the availability of tort remedy against the sovereign, or the state to any considerable degree led to the mature development of the law (Christie and Meeks 1990, page 1202). Because of the increase in the scope of governmental activities and the expanding activities of the Federal Government which touch upon the life of every citizen in such an intimate manner, pressures to either abolish the state’s immunity from suit or to have a waiver of the sovereign immunity in limited situations, increased (Christie and Meeks, 1990). The Pennsylvania Sovereign Immunity Statute has been one of those which hoped to address the increasing dissatisfaction with the concept of sovereign immunity from suit (Christie and Meeks, 1990). This paper hopes to explain the Pennsylvania Sovereign Immunity Statute and the exceptions provided for under the said statute. The paper would also present the particular Constitutional provision which provides support for the exception to the Sovereign Immunity. Finally, the paper hopes to present case laws, the venue, process and limitations, in order to explain further the exception to the said immunity statute. Pennsylvania Sovereign Immunity Statute Over three-fourths of the states in the United States of America have either totally abolished the doctrine of sovereign immunity or substantially modified it (Christie and Meeks, 1990). One such example is Pennsylvania which provides for exceptions to the doctrine of sovereign immunity. 42 Pa. C. S.  §Ã‚ § 8521-8528 provides for the Sovereign Immunity in general, the exceptions and the limitations on damages. 42 Pa. C. S.  § 8522 (b) provide for acts which may impose liability which include: Vehicle Liability or the operation of any motor vehicle in the possession or control of a Commonwealth party; Medical-professional liability or acts of health care employees of Commonwealth agency medical facilities or institutions or by a Commonwealth party who is a doctor, dentist, nurse or related health care personnel; Care, custody or control of personal property in the possession or control of Commonwealth parties, including Commonwealth-owned personal property and property of persons held by a Commonwealth agency; A dangerous condition of Commonwealth agency real estate and sidewalks, including Commonwealth-owned real property, leaseholds in the possession of a Commonwealth agency and Commonwealth-owned real property leased by a Commonwealth agency to private persons, and highways under the jurisdiction of a Commonwealth agency; Potholes and other dangerous conditions of highways under the jurisdiction of a Commonwealth agency created by potholes or sinkholes or other similar conditions created by natural elements; The care, custody or control of animals in the possession or control of a Commonwealth party, including but not limited to police dogs and horses and animals incarcerated in Commonwealth agency laboratories; the sale of liquor at Pennsylvania liquor stores by employees of the Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board created by and operating under the Liquor Code, if such sale is made to any minor, or to any person visibly intoxicated, or to any insane person, or to any person known as an habitual drunkard, or of known intemperate habit; National Guard activities or acts of a member of the Pennsylvania military forces; and finally, the administration, manufacture and use of a toxoid or vaccine not manufactured in the Commonwealth under conditions specified by the statute (42 Pa. C. S.  §Ã‚ § 8522 (b)). Under the Pennsylvania Constitution, all courts shall be open and every man for an injury done him in his lands, goods, person or reputation shall have remedy by due course of law, without sale, denial or delay, and suits may be brought against the Commonwealth in such manner, in such courts and in such cases as the Legislature may by law direct (Pa. Const. Art. I,  § 11). Hence, under this provision the general assembly waives sovereign immunity which is a bar to an action against commonwealth parties where damages would be recoverable under the common law or statute creating a cause of action if the injury were caused by a person to whom the defense of sovereign immunity is not available (Westlaw, n. d. ). Exceptions to the Sovereign Immunity The first exception to sovereign immunity is the vehicle liability or the operation of any motor vehicle liability in the possession or control of a Commonwealth party (42 Pa. C. S.  §Ã‚ § 8522 (b)). Motor vehicle means any vehicle which is self-propelled and any attachment thereto, including vehicles operated by rail, through water or in the air (42 Pa. C. S.  § 8522 (b)). In Harding v. City of Philadelphia, 777 A. 2d 1249 (Pa. Cmwlth. 2001), the Court held that bicycles are not motor vehicles (Governor’s Center for Local Government Services, 2003). In determining whether the vehicle is in operation, the Supreme Court held that the dispatcher’s directions do not constitute operation under the vehicle exception (Regester v. Longwood Ambulance Company, Inc. , 797 A. 2d 898 (Pa. Cmwlth. 2002)). In another case, the Court held that city’s negligent maintenance and repair of fire department’s rescue van was â€Å"operation of motor vehicle† within meaning of motor vehicle exception to governmental immunity (Mickle v.  City of Philadelphia 550 Pa. 539, 707 A. 2d 1124 (1998)). The Court further explains in the case of Vogel v. Langer, 569 A. 2d 1047 (Pa. Cmwlth. 1990), that â€Å"operation† necessarily entails momentary stops due to traffic and communication with other drivers, or such acts which are an integral part of the operation itself (Vogel v. Langer, 569 A. 2d 1047 (Pa. Cmwlth. 1990)). The second exception provides for the medical-professional liability or acts of health care employees of Commonwealth agency medical facilities or institutions or by a Commonwealth party who is a doctor, dentist, nurse or related health care personnel (42 Pa. C. S.  §Ã‚ § 8522 (b)). In Williams v. Syed, No. 431 C. D. 2001, the Court held that Dr. Syed has no privilege to claim sovereign immunity as a defense because as Chief Medical Director of State Correctional Institute at Pittsburgh, he falls within the medical professional liability (Williams v. Syed, No. 431 C. D. 2001). In the case of Stack v. Wapner, 368 A. 2d 292 (Pa. Super. 1976), patients successfully sued physicians for their negligent failure to monitor the patients after administering certain drugs (Stack v. Wapner, 368 A. 2d 292 (Pa. Super. 1976)). The third provides for the personal property exception, which is under the possession or control of the Commonwealth. The Court held that personal property must directly cause plaintiff’s injury not just facilitate it (Dept. of Environmental Resources v. Myers, 581 A. 2d 696 Pa. Cmwlth. (1990)). In this case, a helicopter pilot brought an action for injuries incurred when, under contract with the Department of Environmental Resources (DER), his helicopter ran into power lines while spraying for gypsy moths (Dept. of Environmental Resources v. Myers, 581 A. 2d 696 Pa. Cmwlth. (1990)). The pilot alleged that DER negligently placed the balloons marking the boundaries of the area to be sprayed as well as negligently providing him with a typographical map that failed to show the power lines (Dept. of Environmental Resources v. Myers, 581 A. 2d 696 Pa.  Cmwlth. (1990)). Because of the negligent placement of the balloons and the incorrectly marked map, the pilot contended those items of the Commonwealth’s personal property directly caused his injuries (Dept. of Environmental Resources v. Myers, 581 A. 2d 696 Pa. Cmwlth. (1990)). Rejecting that argument, the Court held that the placement of the balloons did not cause the injury, but merely facilitated another kind of negligence which is professional incompetence (Dept. of Environmental Resources v. Myers, 581 A. 2d 696 Pa. Cmwlth. (1990)). The fourth provides for the real property exception which is under the care, custody or control of the agency. The Court in a case held that the scroll saw was realty, taking into account the nature of the saw, the status of it with respect to the realty, the manner of annexation, and the use for which the scroll saw was installed (Cureton ex. rel. Cannon v. Philadelphia School District, 798 A. 2d 279 Pa. Cmwlth. 2002). In Collins v. City of Philadelphia 227 Pa. 121, 75 A. 1028, Pa. 1910, the Court held that the hole, six inches square, near the middle of a narrow sidewalk and in the direct line of ordinary travel, was more or less dangerous to all persons passing, whether walking or on skates (Collins v. City of Philadelphia 227 Pa. 121, 75 A. 1028, Pa. 1910). Thus, the girl whose foot went into the opening which resulted in permanent injuries, is within the exception provided by the statute (Collins v. City of Philadelphia 227 Pa. 121, 75 A. 1028, Pa. 910). The fifth exception provides that a dangerous condition of highways under the jurisdiction of a Commonwealth agency created by potholes or sinkholes or other similar conditions created by natural elements, shall be an exception to the sovereign immunity but the claimant must establish that the dangerous condition created a reasonably foreseeable risk of the kind of injury and that the Commonwealth agency had actual written notice of the dangerous condition of the highway a sufficient time prior to the event to have taken measures to protect against the dangerous condition (42 Pa. C. S.  §Ã‚ § 8522 (b)). In Litchfield, 22 D. & C. 4th 123 (C. P.  Clinton 1994) in that the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation has the responsibility to make a highway under its jurisdiction safe before it can transfer that jurisdiction, and that whether the highway was safe at the time of transfer is a factual issue for the jury (Litchfield, 22 D. & C. 4th 123 (C. P. Clinton 1994)). The sixth exception provides for the care, custody or control of animals in the possession or control of animals in the possession or control of a Commonwealth party to which the Commonwealth may be held liable (condition (42 Pa. C. S.  §Ã‚ § 8522 (b)). In a case, the Court held that the City of Philadelphia was not in control of a stray dog that attacked the plaintiff under the exception because a stray dog was not within the possession and control of the City (Jenkins v. Kelly, 498 A. 2d 487 (Pa. Cmwlth. 1985). Furthermore, the Court also held in another case that the fact that a township had investigated prior attacks by a dog, owned by a private citizen, and had even temporarily quarantined the dog on one of the occasions, did not create â€Å"possession or control† of the dog, when, at its owner’s premises, the dog attacked her guests (Lerro ex rel. Lerro v. Upper Darby Tp. , 798 A. 2d 817 (Pa. Cmwlth. 2002). The seventh exception provides that liquor store sales at Pennsylvania liquor stores by employees of the Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board if such sale is made to any minor, or to any person visibly intoxicated or to any insane person, or to any person known to any person known as a habitual drunkard or of a known intemperate habit then, Commonwealth cannot use as a defense, sovereign immunity (42 Pa. C. S.  §Ã‚ § 8522 (b)). Acts of members of the military forces are also included in the exception from the sovereign immunity statute (42 Pa. C. S.  §Ã‚ § 8522 (b)). In a case, the Court held that the proposition that the Supreme Court held that the supremacy clause of the United States Constitution prevents a state from immunizing state acts from liability imposed under federal holding that because the Pennsylvania Sovereign Immunity Act does not immunize the unnamed defendants from a cause of action created under federal law, the action cannot be foreclosed merely because the conduct of the defendants does not fall within any of the exceptions to immunity (Heinly v. Commonwealth, 153 Pa. Cmwlth. 599, 621 A. 2d 1212, 1215, 1216 (1993)). Finally, the last exception provides that the liability may be imposed on the Commonwealth for a toxoid or vaccine not manufactured in Pennsylvania and Pennsylvania must take responsibility for it (42 Pa. C. S.  §Ã‚ § 8522 (b)). The statute provides for the following additional guidelines, that the toxoid or vaccine is manufactured in, and available only from, an agency of another state; the agency of the other state will not make the toxoid or vaccine available to private persons or corporations, but will only permit its sale to another state or state agency; the agency of the other state will make the toxoid or vaccine available to the Commonwealth only if the Commonwealth agrees to indemnify, defend and save harmless that agency from any and all claims and losses which may arise against it from the administration, manufacture or use of the toxoid or vaccine; a determination has been made by the appropriate Commonwealth agency, approved by the Governor and published in the Pennsylvania Bulletin, that the toxoid or vaccine is necessary to safeguard and protect the health of the citizens or animals of this Commonwealth; the toxoid or vaccine is distributed by a Commonwealth agency to qualified persons for ul timate use. Hence, the Court held that to apply this exception, there must be a strict interpretation based on the legislature’s intent (Jones v. Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority 565 Pa. 211, 772 A. 2d 435 (2001)). Venue, Process and Limitations As provided in 42 Pa. C. S.  § 8523, actions for claims against a Commonwealth party may be brought in and only in a county in which the principal or local office of the Commonwealth party is located or in which the cause of action arose or where a transaction or occurrence took place out of which the cause of action arose (42 Pa. C. S.  § 8523). The statute adds that if venue is obtained in the Twelfth Judicial District (Dauphin County) solely because the principal office of the Commonwealth party is located within it, any judge of the Court of Common Pleas of Dauphin County shall have the power to transfer the action to any appropriate county where venue would otherwise lie (42 Pa. C. S.  § 8523). The service of process in the case of an action against the Commonwealth shall be made at the principal or local office of the Commonwealth agency that is being sued and at the office of the Attorney General lie (42 Pa. C. S.  § 8523). Limitations on damages is also stated in 42 Pa. C. S.  § 8528 wherein damages arising from the same cause of action or transaction or occurrence or series of causes of action or transactions or occurrences shall not exceed $250,000, in favor of any plaintiff or $1,000,000 in the aggregate (42 Pa. C. S.  § 8528). Furthermore the types of damages recoverable are those damages recoverable only for: Past and future loss of earnings and earning capacity; Pain and suffering; Medical and dental expenses including the reasonable value of reasonable and necessary medical and dental services, prosthetic devices and necessary ambulance, hospital, professional nursing, and physical therapy expenses accrued and anticipated in the diagnosis, care and recovery of the claimant; Loss of consortium; Property losses, except that property losses shall not be recoverable in claims brought pursuant to section 8522(b)(5) which relates to potholes and other dangerous conditions (42 Pa. C. S.  § 8528). In all these, suits against an agency of Pennsylvania may prosper once the plaintiff provides that his claim is under one of the exceptions provided for under the statute. The sovereign immunity therefore under the Pennsylvania Sovereign Immunity Statute is not at all absolute and persons may file suits if their cla ims fall under one of the exceptions provided.

Marketing in a Higher Education Institution Essay

I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Jake Ansell, for all his support and encouragement during this challenging dissertation period. My gratitude also goes out to all academic and support staff of the MSc Marketing and Business Analysis course for what was an educational stimulating academic year. All the knowledge passed on and assistance given formed a solid foundation that was invaluable during the course of working on this dissertation. I would like to also like to take this opportunity to extend my appreciation to my family members, course mates and friends, who acted as pillars of strength by continuously keeping check and giving out words of encouragement during the dissertation phase. ABSTRACT The nature of the rapidly changing Higher Education (HE) industry has forced universities to implement more innovative marketing strategies. In order to remain competitive, there is a need for universities to not only engage in marketing strategies that are relevant to the existing HE context, but also be aware of foreseeable changes that are taking place to enable them to alter their positions and adapt smoothly without being left behind. This study investigates the marketing strategies employed by the College of Humanities and Social Science at the University of Edinburgh and the relevance of these strategies in the context of the fast-moving HE industry. Three main areas were studied in the literature review- demands of the industry, current marketing philosophies and practices within the industry and trends that likely to shape the future of the industry. A proper understanding of these areas is important as it used as a comparative yardstick to evaluate the College’s existing strategic position and the direction it is heading towards. Qualitative research was used given the exploratory nature of the study that aimed to uncover thoughts, experiences and ideas of respondents. In-depth interview was used as the main research method as there was a specific need to gather detailed information from select-few respondents based on their job expertise. On a smaller scale, focus group interviews comprising students were also conducted as a complementary research to generate their perception and views regarding the Higher Education Industry. Upon analysis, discussion of the findings was divided into three sections based on their relevance to the research questions and the gaps observed in the literature review. The key findings was that the general philosophy of the College’s marketing is in line with the existing standards expected of the HE, but there is inadequate marketing for undergraduate levels which was brought about by an arguably false interpretation of high demand. The study also shows that there is under-utilization of the role of student ambassador and lack of gender-based marketing, both of which were identified in the literature as important in keeping up with fiercer competition and addressing challenges of the future. In terms of fee structure, high-income household students are expected to pay the largest share of costs because of their ineligibility to apply for most loans and grants. However, they are seen to be willing to pursue HE studies and view it as an investment for a better career. Low and middle-income household students, although are not affected much at undergraduate level, are likely to seek employment after their studies instead of commencing a postgraduate degree. The findings and analysis brought about several recommendations which include focusing on international marketing to increase the level of international students, hence generating higher revenues that could be channelled at funding purposes for postgraduate level to increase participation of low and middle-income household students. Recommendations for strengthening marketing efforts at undergraduate level, tailoring gender-based marketing and efficient utilization of student ambassador schemes were also provided. The study concludes that while the current marketing philosophy fits the existing context (with exception to undergraduate level), a lot can be done to capitalized on emerging trends to ensure that the College is better prepared to deal with the changes of the future. 1.0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION This Chapter will present the purpose of the research, along with the objectives that are aimed to be achieved. It also brings into attention the relevant research questions that the study seeks to answer. The Introduction Chapter concludes with a structure of report to demonstrate the organization and structural design of this study. 1.1 Purpose of Study The purpose of this study is to analyze the current marketing strategies employed by the University of Edinburgh’s College of Humanities and Social Science and its relevance to the rapidly changing higher education industry, to enhance the knowledge available in existing research and also to set the foundation for further research. Existing research on higher education is vast but there is limited research on contemporary strategies in the fastchanging higher education industry. More importantly, there has been very few studies done on the University of Edinburgh and the Colleges associated with it, in terms of its effectiveness in executing marketing strategies and preparatory measures in dealing with future challenges. The objectives of this research are: 1) To investigate the relevance of marketing strategies adopted by the College of Humanities and Social Science with regards to the existing context of the Higher Education industry. 2) To investigate the competitiveness of marketing strategies employed by the College of Humanities and Social Science with regards to the foreseeable changes to the Higher Education industry. In order to do this, there was need to gain a general understanding on the Higher Education industry and also the transformations that it has witnessed and are likely to face in the recent future. Upon identifying the underlying and emerging factors that are set to affect the marketing strategies undertaken by the College, the study was limited to a focused area of study and the following research questions were derived: 1) Are the general marketing philosophies of the University of Edinburgh in line with contemporary standards expected in the Higher Education industry? 2) To what extent are Student Ambassadors being empowered and utilized as a marketing tool to provide the edge in a competitive student recruitment market? 3) Are there initiatives on gender-based marketing to capitalize on the trend of consistently increasing number of female students in Higher Education? 4) How would a new fee-structure, if implemented, affect marketing strategies in recruiting UK, EU and Overseas students? 1.2 Structure of Report The report is organised as follows: CHAPTER ONE: Reveals the purpose of the study and central issues that are observed. It moves on to identify the research objectives that the study endeavours to appreciate through the assessment of key research questions (previous section). CHAPTER TWO: Provides an overview of the Higher Education industry and explores three main section- demands in higher education, contemporary marketing philosophies and practices of the industry, and the higher education fee structure. Each section is concluded by establishing their relevance to the research questions being posed. CHAPTER THREE: Discusses the methodology used in addressing the research questions. This Chapter establishes the reasons for the selection of methods and techniques used, and highlights the limitations in place. It also provides reasons as to why other methods were not employed. CHAPTER FOUR: Provides findings from the primary research and analysis linking the findings to the literature review. This Chapter is divided into three sections- New-age marketing philosophies of the higher education industry, relationship between tuition fees structure and marketing strategies with regards to recruitment for UK, EU and Non-EU students, and under-utilization of resources to capitalize of emerging trends (student ambassador and gender-based marketing). It also critically discusses the strengths and weakness of the College’s marketing strategies. Recommendations were also provided in this chapter to counter weaknesses that were observed. CHAPTER FIVE: Concludes the study and reiterates the summarized findings, analysis and recommendations of the previous Chapter. Areas for future research and research limitations that could be improved on were also highlighted. Note: In this research, ‘College’ would refer to College of Humanities and Social Science, University of Edinburgh. This is distinct from ‘University’ which would refer to the University of Edinburgh as a whole. Although this study is done in the College, the word ‘University’ will be used in some discussion areas which encompass both the College and the University. 2.0 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW The Literature review will emphasize on three areas: demands for Higher Education, contemporary marketing philosophies and practices of Higher Education, and Higher Education fee structure. A firm comprehension of these areas will provide a good understanding on the current structure of Higher Education and the direction it is heading towards. 2.1 Demands for Higher Education The implementation of effective marketing strategies depends significantly on clear understanding of demands within an industry. This section of the literature review aims to look into the patterns seen in demand, from both local and international perspectives, and how they have evolved over the years. It would seek to review motivations that drive demand for higher education and identify emerging trends that could have an effect on future demands in the higher education industry. Such understandings are vital for institutions in continuing to remain competitive and also in laying the foundations to facilitate possible changes in strategies for the future. Statistical figures show that in 1950, about 50,000 tertiary level students studied in institutions outside their home country (Brickman 1975). Europe and North America were the most popular continents of study destination and a vast majority of the students were from these regions. In terms of Asian students, few studied away from their home countries and for those who did, the majority followed the colonial path with students from India, the Malay Peninsula and Hong Kong heading to the United Kingdom and ones from Indochina preferring an education in France (Cummings and So 1985). Out of a total of 900,000 students who studied abroad in tertiary institutions in 1984, Asian students constituted about 45% of them in 1985. The sharp increase of Asian students was contributed by factors such as increment in income per capita in Asia which made it affordable for them to pursue a degree overseas and also the perception that overseas degrees were viewed as a platform to achieve good employment opportunities. Another contributing factor was the rapid expansion of secondary education in many Asian countries, hence creating more qualified tertiary-level applicants that the local education system could accommodate (Cumming 1984). Over the last decade, developed countries around the world saw a significant increase in demand for tertiary education and there have been a large volume of research in economic literature to assess and analyze the driving forces that brought about this shift. Albert (2000) states that all these studies lead to one major contributing force that has resulted in high demand for higher education; the positive association between level of education and income and career prospects. Testing this hypothesis in the UK context, Greenaway and Haynes (2000) reported that an average earning difference between a graduate and a nongraduate stands at  £410,000 while Skidelski (2000) through a study using a different methodology projects the figure at  £400,000. These figures are supported strongly by the report of UK’s Department of Education and Skill using Labour Force Survey data which estimated a lifetime average differential of  £400,000 as well (Greenaway and Haynes 2003). Therefore, given the similar period in which these studies were done, the UK figures asserts the findings of Albert (2000) whereby there is validity in the perception of association between income and level of education. Another important finding by Albert (2000) is the role of gender in explaining demand, in which women were noted to be relatively more motivated and inclined than men to demand for higher education on the basis that it would enable them to compete on par with men in career advancement opportunities. This is supported by Broecke and Hamed (2008) in which they stated that although women has been historically under-representation in higher education, statistics show that by 1992, they have caught up with men in terms of participation in England and as of 2008, are ahead of men by 7.2%. In a report submitted to the United Nations, Johnson and Vanderpool (2003) found that in the Carribean, the number of women in higher education outnumber that of men, and in some institutions even show 3.2:1 ratio. It is also estimated that the ratio could go up as high as 8:1 in favour of women. In the United States, the participation of women in higher education increased from 43% in 1971 to 56% in 1997 and the gap continues to widen (United States General Accounting Office 2000). In the UK context, the numbers of undergraduate female student applicants over the past 3 years have been consistently placed at 56% compared to male student applicants at 44% (see Appendix 1).This trend is of importance to higher education marketing in terms of weighing the importance of gender in relation to the establishment of target groups. While women may be seen as the ones more inclined to embrace higher education, it also indicates that little focus have to be channelled to them in marketing campaigns as compared to males. In terms of undergraduate students in the UK higher education industry, a significant portion of 88% consists of UK students in 2009/10. This is followed by Non-EU and EU students at 8% and 4% respectively. Figures based solely on undergraduate students enrolled on a full time basis indicate that UK students emerge as the significant front runner with 84% ahead of Non-EU students at 10% and EU students at 6%. As for part-time undergraduate students, UK students are again the majority at 94% followed by Non-EU students at 4% and EU students at 2% (see Appendix 2). Although the pattern across both these modes of study is quite similar, there is a difference in terms of percentage variation between the 2009/10 enrolments compared to the previous academic cycle of 2008/2009. While all full time students regardless of geographical background recorded a positive variation in enrolment, UK and EU part time students recorded a decrease in enrolment by 3% and 7% respectively. Only Non-EU part -time students registered a positive increment from 2008/09 to 2009/10 with an increase of 6% (HESA 2011). Sastry (2004) argues that the number of students obtaining postgraduate courses immediately after their undergraduate studies is expected to rise due to the fact that there has been increasing number of graduates over the years. Therefore, as supported by Hesketh and Knight (1999), postgraduate study is viewed as an option for undergraduates to differentiate themselves from the pool of other graduates seeking employment. Non-EU students make up about 43% of overall full-time postgraduate students in UK in 2009/10. This consists of a significant portion of total postgraduate students and the number has nearly doubled in the past seven years, indicating that this is a recent and emerging trend (HESA 2011). Overall, without taking UK into account, Non-EU students constitute 69% of students at all levels of study (see Appendix 3). This trend has seen the number of Non-EU students increase by almost 200% from 1995 to 2010. Income received by higher education institutions from Non-EU students during this same period has also increased significantly from  £455 million in 1995 to  £2,580 million in 2010 (see Appendix 4). Given that this is now a major market for UK tertiary institutions, there has been a rise in efforts taken to continue reaching prospective students abroad (Hemsley-Brown and Oplatka 2006). Important factors that come into play when assessing the ability of the UK higher education to remain   attractive are the standard and reputation of institutions, the expansion of local education system in countries abroad, particularly China and India, and the competitiveness of the UK market as opposed to other study destinations (Ramsden and Brown 2008). Employment opportunities in the UK is also a reason for Non-EU students to take up a postgraduate course as students who have studied in the UK for at least one full academic year would be eligible to apply for a Post-Study Work Visa. Guruz (2009) stated that incentives in the form of research grants and employment opportunities abroad are major forces that are considered by foreign students when choosing a study destination. However, it has to be brought into attention that the current UK Government has tightened visa regulations and the Post-Study Work Visa would be abolished in 2012 (The Guardian 2011). Therefore, the changes in regulation may bring about significant changes to the enrolment of international students in postgraduate courses in the UK. UK students consist of about 45% of the total number of full-time postgraduate students in the region, almost similar to the number of Non-EU students. However, UK students make up 82% of the part-time postgraduate students in 2009/10 (HESA 2011). This is partly due to the fact that the high postgraduate fees require students to work in order to finance themselves. Other contributing reasons include company scholarship and students not wanting to leave their jobs in times of economic turmoil (Jongbloed 2003). EU students make up about 12% of full time postgraduate students, with most of its students coming from the new countries admitted into EU since 2004. However, increasing or perhaps even retaining the current level of enrolment of EU students may be a challenge as projections show that the population of 1830 year olds in EU are set to fall by 14% over the next 20 years. Of the new countries admitted into the EU in 2004, it is projected that their combined population of 18 year olds will decrease by a significant 37%, from 1.5 million in 2007 to 1 million in 2027 (Ramsden and Brown 2008). Reviewing this section shows that there is an increasing number of Non-EU students, particularly Asians, opting to study out of their home countries. Overall, over the years, there are a growing number of students who embark on higher education and one of the major contributors to this is the positive association between level of education and career prospects. The secondary research also reveals that although the majority of undergraduate students come from the UK, most of the postgraduate students in the UK are made up of Non-EU students. The trend of growing number of female students in the higher education industry was also observed. 2.2 Contemporary Marketing Philosophies and Practices of Higher Education In order to remain relevant in rapidly changing industry, it is important for institutions to keep abreast with current needs of the market and changes that are required of the industry to remain competitive. Therefore, this section of the literature review attempts to assess the paradigm shift of traditional higher education marketing to contemporary strategies required by the industry and also look at key areas that could be fully utilized to enhance the efficiency of higher education marketing campaigns. The marketing of higher education needs to encompass the traditional emphasis on product, place, price and promotion but also include people, process and physical evidence through a service-oriented marketing approach which gives due credence to the value of the intangible and inseparable. In this context, the components of people, process and physical evidence have been altered slightly to represent a more appropriate connotation in regards to the higher education industry. Newman and Jahdi (2009) described people as ‘calibre’ or ‘champions’ whereby such human qualities in an institution would be pivotal in attracting students. This echoes the view held by McGrath (2003) in which a positive correlation between the development of education market and high priority on variables such as managerial competence, role-model associations and performance. The component of process has been defined as ‘capability’, where issues such as communication between the institution and prospective student, relationship marketing and enrolment procedures should be handled efficiently to gain competitive advantage. Newman and Jahdi (2009) further asserts that considerations as small as publicising opening hours for consulting and enrolment purposes as well as offering refreshments could, once combined, prove to be the ‘added value’ that would inevitably enhance the end service that is being marketed. The final component, physical evidence was represented by ‘charisma’, whereby elements such as geographical location, facilities and amenities are taken into account. Factors such as history and heritage of a location and the tradition of graduation ceremonies could provide a sense of identity that students would take pride in being associated with the institution (Roper and Davies 2007). However, Newman and Jahdi (2009) stated that the implementation of marketing mix could potentially lead to adverse consequences as marketing rhetoric may not necessarily always reflect educational reality. They go on to state that although there are indications that higher education marketers have started to take the leap into focusing on people, process and physical evidence, these elements need to be expanded to include contemplation and thoughts of higher education from staff and students as this would be able to minimize the mismatch of the marketing rhetoric and the reality of the environment. Critically, Newman and Jahdi (2009) also argued that knowledge and skills acquired in tertiary educational institutions should not be conveniently marketed as mere commodities that are to be sold as predetermined packages to those who have been targeted. Instead, there should be a genuine attempt to convey that education is a challenging industry that would require effort and planning by students, hence projecting the reality. Evans (2004) holds similar views about the need to craft a marketing effort that is as close to reality as possible, particularly given the context of the current climate whereby effectiveness, quality, competition and evaluation are a matter of public discourse and information are widely available and easily accessed. This is supported by Crosby et al. (1991), in their argument that a false representation in marketing could lead to adverse effects and negatively impact upon the credibility of an institution. Therefore, although not predominantly derived from a moral standpoint, the need to eliminate unsubstantiated benefits and other positive associations with an institution is vital in terms of marketing implications as failure to appreciate this growing issue may cause an institution’s credibility being put to question. Student ambassadors are very much part of UK higher education institutions and they have been known to assist in marketing efforts of their respective universities, predominantly via engagement with prospective students through campus tours. In recent times, student ambassadors have widened their scope of marketing operations and have now extended their services through handling multiple tasks, which include organizing residential summer schools to help prospective students to gain insights into university lifestyle in hope that this would encourage them to take up higher education courses. Another new area embarked by student ambassadors is their participation in mentoring activities, particularly for the disadvantaged youths (Ylonen 2010). These recent expansion in their activities have been encouraged the former Labour government’s initiative to expand participation in higher education for groups that are under-represented through its Aimhigher programme. In analyzing the relationship between higher education decision-making amongst the young and the role played by student ambassadors in this aspect, Gartland and Pacsuzka (2007) found that student ambassadors who are deemed trustworthy by prospective students could play a key role in widening their participation gap as prospects are more likely to consider them as a preferred choice of contact point when making further enquiries, especially if they do not have a family background in higher education. This is supported by Reay et al. (2005) in their argument that information gathered through relationships and networks are taken more seriously compared to ones obtained from official sources such as prospectuses and the Internet. Therefore, student ambassadors can potentially be seen as mediators and their interventions would greatly influence decisions made by prospects. Taylor (2008) argued that one of the challenges faced in institutions is to connect the territories of academia and school environment and hence, the role of a student ambassador fits in well as although they speak from the standpoint of the institution, there is not much difference in the age bracket between both these groups and this would create a more casual and appropriate comfort zone for prospective students to engage in. This finding is particularly relevant to marketers in determining the age group of candidates to be selected as student ambassadors, given that they consist of not only undergraduates but also mature postgraduate students. In a study of an Aimhigher programme in south-east London, Ylonen (2010) found that most student ambassadors had very vague ideas of what they thought their tasks would be like and many of them stated that their expected roles as perceived during training and their actual roles were very different. Although they generally had sound knowledge of higher education lifestyle and its environment, many lacked the thorough knowledge of procedures that occur within an institution, such as financial issues. Coordinators, most of whom are marketing officers within their respective universities, have also noted that many potentially good student ambassadors failed to apply because they did not see themselves to fit into the characteristics set by the coordinators (Terion and Leonard 2007). These weaknesses are of relevance to higher education marketing units as contemporary research suggests that despite having a valuable student capacity in the form of student ambassadors, their potentials are being under-utilized due to administrative and training setbacks. The flaws seen in this system is viewed to be largely due to the fact that there isn’t a national model of the student ambassador scheme to be used as a guideline and all higher education institutions are expected to craft and implement their strategies independently. Although it is important to have flexibility and a certain degree of autonomy, a scheme without guidelines can arguably be go astray and lose its sense of direct ion (Ylonen 2010). Literature in this area of study reveals that in terms of higher education marketing, there should be a focus on service-oriented marketing through an innovation of the extended 4Ps, which would include the elements of ‘calibre’, ‘capability’ and ‘charisma’. Apart from that, it also indicates that the growing importance of the role of student ambassadors have gone large unrecognized. Despite them being available in most universities, there is a lack of effective utilization of these roles. 2.3 Higher Education Fee Structure The future of higher education in the UK has been put into uncertainty by the recent changes in tuition fees policy and many are unsure as to how these changes would impact on demands by students across levels of households. Although the changes have been made effective in England and Wales, the Scottish Government has yet to make an official announcement on this issue. However, a comprehensive review of the changes that have been taking place in the fee-structure and how it has affected the industry as a whole and demand, in particular would enable higher education marketers to prepare for the changes that although unclear, appear to be imminent. The financing of the higher education industry has been a subject of debate for the past five decades and had been given high priority by successive governments, regardless of political inclinations. During this phase, there has been a shift from a fully-funded taxpayer scheme to a ‘cost-sharing’ system, whereby students are required to cover a certain portion of their tuition fees (Dearden et al. 2010). The change of system sparked a wide range of concerns, particularly the reservations that it would lead to a lower level of participation (Connor and Dewson 2001). The introduction of the 1998 Teaching and Higher Education Act was the first significant change made to the higher education financing structure as it marked the unprecedented introduction of tuition fees at a cap of  £1,000 a year for degree courses (Claire and Jonathan 2005). Maintenance grants that were previously offered were reduced  in stages and later eliminated only to be replaced with maintenance loans which were established in 1999 (Christie and Munro 2003). The 2004 Higher Education Act paved way for another significantly policy to be put in place in 2006, which saw the implementation of deferred fees which was applicable to all students, regardless of economic background (Harrison 2011). The new fee had a cap of  £3,000 and universities had the prerogative to decide the amount to charge each student (Dearden et al, 2004; 2005). Fee loans were provided, only to be repaid by students after graduation if they’re earnings were above  £15,000. Apart from that, the 2004 Higher Education Act also reinstalled maintenance grants which were to be distributed to poor students (Harrison 2011). In the year 2006, the value of this grant was significantly increased. As a result of the introduction of tuition fees along with the substitution of maintenance grants with loans, many argued that it would not only lower participation but also be discriminative against students from lower-income households (Dearden et al. 2010). On the contrary, there were also proponents of the new system who claimed that requiring student to contribute to their studies would instil a sense of responsibility in them and hence, at a larger scale, increase efficiency and quality of higher education (Greenaway and Haynes, 2003; Goodman and Kaplan, 2003). Apart from that, the benefits gained by higher education in terms of wages and salary brackets would offset the negative impact caused by the introduction of tuition fees. Another advantage of imposing tuition fees is that only students who are committed on acquiring skills and knowledge would enrol into institutes and not ones who wish to have prolonged ‘laddish’ times, hence in a way addressing the issue of youth unemployment (Lange 1998). It is also interesting to note that in the UK, government spending on higher education continues to grow despite larger share of financial burden being on placed students as shown by 2007 figures whereby  £918m,  £349m and  £564m were spent on maintenance grants, student fee loans and maintenance loans respectively (Dearden et al. 2010). In 2010, another significant policy change was made to the higher education financing structure in England and Wales, whereby the upper tier for tuition fees was increased from  £3,000 to  £9,000 (BBC 2010). While poorer students would be protected by a large number of scholarship and bursaries, students from middle and high-income households would be the group that is most negatively affected (Directgov 2011). Highly successful students who go on to land high paying jobs would also be affected as they would be required to pay loan amounts that are significantly higher than those with average incomes (The Guardian 2010). In the case of Scotland, the Cubie committee was formed in 1999 following the Scottish devolution to look into the higher education financing. The Cubie Report (2000) proposed that an endowment scheme be put in place and through the Education (Graduate Endowment and Student Support) (Scotland) Act 2001, students were required to pay  £2,000 when their annual earnings reached  £10,000. The repayment was later raised from  £2,000 to  £2,289 for students commencing their studies in 2006/07 academic period (The Cubie Report 2000). However in 2007, the government tabled the Graduate Endowment Abolition (Scotland) Bill which aimed at scraping the endowment scheme and the move was approved in 2008, hence restoring free education in Scotland (BBC 2008). Based on the United States context, Kent (1994) studied the relationship between the state’s public spending on higher education and the impact of tuition fee costs on higher education participation. The finding was that $1,000 increase in tuition fees would bring about a 3.7ppt reduction in participation among African Americans. On a wider scale, Kent (1995) found that there was a reduction in participation among Americans in higher education, in which a $1,000 increase in fees resulted in a 2.4 decrease in participation. On assessing a policy made in 1982 which led to financial aids being removed from students with deceased, disabled or retired father, Dynarksi (1999) found that the impact of aid withdrawal led to decrease tertiary participation by 3.6ppt. Supporting this finding is a study done by Seftor and Turner (2002), whom upon analysing the impact of aid withdrawal, found a small impact of reduction in participation by 0.7ppt per $1,000 of aid withdrawn. The UK context of higher education financial constraint on students and its effects on participation can be viewed at two separate phases; the 1998 reforms and the 2006 reforms as described earlier. The 1998 reforms, in terms of grants alone, saw low income students being the most significantly impacted, with participation estimated at 2.3ppt lower than what it would have been without the abolishment grants (Dearden et al. 2010). On the other hand, the increase in loans received by this group resulted in an increase in participation and hence, offset the negative impact brought about by the abolishment of grants. Therefore, there were no significant changes to participation for the lower income group. High income students, however, recorded a reduction of 5.4ppt in participation as even though the abolishment of grants had no impact on them, the increment of tuition fees was a significant impact (Dearden et al. 2010). Study on the 2006 reforms showed that both the lower and higher income groups did not record overall changes in participation (Forsyth and Furlong 2003). Therefore, this section of the literature indicates that despite concerns by many that an increment in tuition fees can be discriminatory towards lower income groups, studies have shown that the negative impact brought by the hike in fees are often outweighed by grants or loan packages. This also brings about serious implications to higher education institutions on deciding the type of financial assistance and the accurate target groups to ensure that participation does not see an unhealthy dip. Such a consequence could be detrimental to the economy of the country as many research seem to suggest that the economic well being of a nation state is directly associated with the level investments spent on education (Barro and Sala-i-Martin, 1995; Bassanini and Scarpenta, 2001).

Biography of Wilma Rudolph Essay Example

Biography of Wilma Rudolph Essay Example Biography of Wilma Rudolph Paper Biography of Wilma Rudolph Paper â€Å"Never underestimate the power of your dreams and the influence of the human spirit.   We are all the same in this notion.   The potential for greatness lives within each of us† (as cited in â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.).   These are the words of Wilma Rudolph, an American athlete whose amazing life and remarkable career inspired many people.   Indeed, she knows what shes taking about, as she successfully overcame lifes struggles and reached her full potential for greatness.   This research paper aims to discuss the life, career, achievements and legacy of Wilma Rudolph. Family Background On June 23, 1940, Wilma Glodean Rudolph was born in St. Bethlehem, Tennessee (Roberts, 2008).   She grew up in Clarksville, Tennessee.   Her parents were Ed and Blanche Rudolph (Women in History, 2008).   Her father was a railroad porter and handyman, while her mother worked as a maid for rich Caucasian families (Women in History, 2008; â€Å"Wilma Rudolph,† 2008).   Wilma was the 20th child in a family of 22 children (â€Å"Wilma Rudolph,† 2008).   This is because prior to her fathers marriage to his mother, he already had 14 children (Lovett, 1997).   Despite their parents’ hard work, the Rudolph family remained poor.   The 1940s was a rather difficult time for numerous Americans; the Great Depression rendered many people unemployed and homeless (Women in History, 2008).   The Rudolph family was part of this period; because life was hard, they had to improvise, using flour sacks to make dresses for the girls (Women in History, 2008). In 1963, Rudolph was married to Robert Eldridge, her high school sweetheart (Women in History, 2008).   They had four children, which consisted of two boys and two girls, namely: Yolanda, Djuana, Robert and Xurry (Lovett, 1997).   Rudolph and Eldridge were later divorced (Women in History, 2008). Childhood As a result of her premature birth, Rudolph only weighed 4.5 pounds (Women in History, 2008).   At the time of her birth, there was racial segregation.   The local hospital could not admit Wilmas mother because it was for Caucasians only.   In Clarksville, there is a single African-American doctor present, but due to financial constraints, Rudolph and her mother could not see that doctor either (Women in History, 2008).   Her mother did to her what any other dedicated mother would have done; she took care of her daughter and nursed her to health for every illness she endured.   At the tender age of four, Wilma suffered from double pneumonia and scarlet fever (Owens, 1976).   Other illnesses she suffered included â€Å"chicken pox, measles, whooping cough and polio† (Lovett, 1997).   She also suffered from mumps (Women in History, 2008). Among all the illness that struck Rudolph, polio was the worst.   They noticed that Wilmas left leg and foot was slowly being malformed.   Her mothers efforts did not suffice to remedy her daughters condition, so they were prompted to see the doctor.   They later found out that it was polio, and the doctor believed Rudolph would never be able to walk (Women in History, 2008).   Rudolph said: â€Å"My doctors told me I would never walk again.   My mother told me I would. I believed my mother† (as cited in â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.).   Indeed, her mother knew Rudolph would walk and was not discouraged by the doctors prognosis.   She discovered that Rudolph could be treated in a Nashville medical college for African-Americans called Meharry Hospital (Women in History, 2008).   Despite the 50-mile distance, her mother brought her to the hospital two times a week for two years (Women in History, 2008).   After Rudolphs two year treatment, she lea rned how to walk with a leg brace made of metal.   She was only six years old (Lovett, 1997).   When asked about her experience with the brace, Rudolph had this to say: â€Å"I spent most of my time trying to figure out how to get them off.   However, when you come from a large, wonderful family, theres always a way to achieve your goals† (as cited in â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.). Aside from the brace, the doctors also advised that therapy would be extremely helpful in healing Rudolphs leg (Owens, 1976).   In the hospital, Rudolph received water and heat therapy.   Her therapy, however, was not confined inside the hospital.   Even after a long day of work, her mother still found the time to massage her daughters leg when Rudolph was asleep (Owens, 1976).   Rudolphs massage therapy did not stop with her mother.  Ã‚   Three of Wilmas sisters also learned to massage her leg, a skill they all learned from their mother (Owens, 1976).   Her brothers also offered moral support, as they encouraged her to continually fight her recovery (Women in History, 2008). After wearing a leg brace for a long time, Rudolph had to wear a â€Å"high-topped shoe† for leg support (â€Å"Wilma Rudolph,† 2008).   Her corrective shoe did not hinder the young Wilma from playing sports, specifically basketball.   Back then, basketball consisted in putting a ball in a peach basket elevated and attached to a pole (Owens, 1976).   That pole was installed when Rudolph was eleven (Roberts, 2007).   According to her mother, â€Å"After that, it was basketball, basketball, basketball† (as cited in Roberts, 2007).   Wearing her corrective shoe, Rudolph played basketball with her brothers.   In the words of Owens (1976), â€Å"she would dribble and cut, stop and go, jump for the ball and spring into the air as she shot.† At age twelve, Rudolph finally walked without braces or corrective shoes.   Amazingly, she could run as well.   Her mother arrived home one day, and found her playing basketball with her siblings in the backyard.   However, her mother noticed that her daughter was barefoot (â€Å"Wilma Rudolph,† 2008).   Rudolph was so engrossed with playing that she barely noticed the restoration of her legs (Owens, 1976). Education Because of her crippling condition, Rudolph began her education at home (Women in History, 2008).   She was taught by the members of her large family.   At age seven, she officially attended school.   During that time, Tennessee and all the other states in the South had segregated schools; Caucasian and African-Americans cannot and did not go to the same schools.   Despite the same amount of taxes collected from both groups, African-American schools were inferior to its Caucasian counterparts.   These schools were â€Å"poorly funded,† which meant there were not enough books and classrooms for the students, nor were there enough teachers (Women in History, 2008). Like her sister Yolanda, Rudolph also joined the basketball team in junior high (Women in History, 2008).   However, for the first three years, Coach Clinton Gray did not allow her to play.   It was only in her sophomore year when she was allowed to play as starting guard.   Wilma acquired the nickname â€Å"Skeeter† from Coach Gray (Roberts, 2007).   Coach Gray once told her: â€Å"Youre little, youre fast and you always get in the way† (as cited in Roberts, 2007).   Soon, she was playing for the state; she got 49 points in a single game, a record for Tennessee (Roberts, 2007).  Ã‚   Rudolphs start in basketball eventually gave way to her track career, as Coach Ed Temple saw her during a state basketball competition.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Burt High School, which Rudolph attended, did not have finances to maintain a track team; because of this, Coach Temple invited her to attend a summer sports camp at Tennessee State University (Lovett, 1997). Rudolph graduated from high school, and attended Tennessee State University on a full scholarship (Women in History, 2008).   Because of her track career, she had to stop studying for a year.   Still, she came back and graduated with a Bachelors Degree in Education in 1963 (Women in History, 2008). Career in Sports According to Rudolph, â€Å"I walked with braces until I was at least nine years old.   My life wasnt like the average person who grew up and decided to enter the world of sports† (as cited in â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.).   After an extremely difficult childhood, no one would ever think that Wilma was capable of doing sports.   Indeed, she did, and was successful too. Coach Edward S. Temple was a referee for a Clarksville basketball game in 1955 (Lovett, 1997).   Coach Temple was the coach for the Tigerbelles Womens Track Club at the Tennessee State University (TSU) (Lovett, 1997).   The Tigerbelles was the â€Å"most internationally accomplished athletic team† in Tennessee (Lovett, 1997).   There, Coach Temple saw this â€Å"long, skinny-legged teenage basketball player,† and saw her potential to be a sprinter (Lovett, 1997).   The person Coach temple saw was Rudolph.   He then wasted no time inviting the then 14-year-old to participate in his summer camp (Lovett, 1997). Rudolph did attend the said summer camp, and enjoyed it immensely.   Rudolph said, â€Å"I loved the feeling of freedom in running, the fresh air, the feeling that the only person Im competing with is me† (as cited in â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.).   She enjoyed running so much that even if she was still in high school, she had already been attending college practices under Coach Temples supervision (Roberts, 2007).   Those practices happened everyday.   Rudolph narrates, â€Å"I ran and ran and ran every day, and I acquired this sense of determination, this sense of spirit that I would never, never give up, no matter what else happened† (as cited in â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.). Rudolphs success as an athlete was also dependent on Coach Temples hard work and determination.   He was a sociology instructor by profession, but he was unpaid as a coach (Roberts, 2007).   He used his own means and resources to allow his sprinters to train and meet.   He drove them in his own vehicle.   It was also he who was responsible for lining the school track, which used to be â€Å"an unmarked and unsurfaced dirt oval† (Roberts, 2007).  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Coach Temple may be dedicated, but that does not mean he was lenient.   For every minute that girls were late for practice, he let them run an extra lap (Roberts, 2007).   In one instance, Rudolph was 30 minutes late for because she overslept; Coach Temple made her run 30 extra laps as punishment.   She immediately learned her lesson; she came 30 minutes early the next day (Roberts, 2007). The year 1956 saw six Tigerbelles, including Rudolph, headed to the Olympics (Lovett, 1997).   She competed in her first ever Olympics at the age of sixteen, and took home a bronze medal for 4100 relay (International Olympic Committee, 2008).   Four years after, Rudolph and the rest of the team proceeded to Pan American Games, and they took home many medals.   However, it was in the 1960 Rome Olympics were Rudolph emerged most victorious, a victory that brought her into the limelight. Rudolph competed in three events: the 100m and 200 m dashes, and the 4x100m relay (International Olympic Committee [IOC], 2008).   In the semifinals of the 100m dash, she equaled the world record at 11.3 seconds (IOC, 2008).   She then went on to win the final with only 11.0 seconds (IOC, 2008).   After three days, she then bagged her second victory for the 200m dash (IOC, 2008).   In addition, she finished the 4x100m relay semifinals with a world record of 44.4 seconds (IOC, 2008); she also emerged victorious in the final.   However, this victory almost did not happen.   Rudolph was ready to receive the baton and run, but the girl who was supposed to pass it did not actually place the baton on Rudolphs hand (Owens, 1976).   In the words of Owens (1976), â€Å"the required smooth passing motion, with one girl slowing and the other speeding up, was broken.†Ã‚   By this time German runner Jutta Heine was already ahead (Owens, 1976).   Rudolph ran as fast as she c ould, and finished ahead of Heine.   As a result, Rudolph took home three Olympic gold medals. In 1957, Rudolph maintained her level of success, as she finished a 100m dash in 11.3 seconds, matching the world record (IOC, 2008)..   After four days, she surpassed the previous world relay record (IOC, 2008). Fame and Recognition Rudolphs Olympic success made history.   She was the â€Å"first woman American woman to win three gold medals in one Olympics† (Roberts, 2007).   This accomplishment made Rudolph a household name, and she gained fans around the world.   She was suddenly catapulted to the spotlight; both local and foreign media considered her as a celebrity.   The same year she won in the Olympics, she received two recognitions: United Press Athlete of the Year and Associated Press Woman Athlete of the Year (â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.). Rudolphs running style and natural beauty made everyone sit up and notice.   Her height was five foot eleven; her weight was 132 pounds (Owens, 1976).   She was very fast, yet graceful.   To borrow the words of Owens (1976), â€Å"Wilma was willowy, streamlined, and shaped like a girl.†Ã‚   This made international journalists give her several names.   The French called her â€Å"La Perle Noire,† or â€Å"The Black Pearl† (Owens, 1976).   On the other hand,  Ã‚   the Italians referred to her as â€Å"La Gazzella Nera,† or â€Å"The Black Gazelle† (Owens, 1976). However, it was not only her remarkable skill and style of running that won the hearts of many fans.   Her simple and down-to-earth personality made people fall in love with her.   In places such as â€Å"Athens, London, Amsterdam, Cologne, Wuppertal, Frankfurt and Berlin† where she competed, numerous fans came to see her (Owens, 1976).   According to Sports Illustrated, police had to be employed to manage the fans in Cologne (Roberts, 2007).   On the other hand, Berlin welcomed Rudolph in a different way: admirers swarmed her bus and hit it with their fists to make Rudolph wave (Roberts, 2007).   Lastly, her shoes were stolen (Roberts, 2007).   On her part, she never failed to smile and greet the crowds that watched her; she also patiently responded to their inquiries (Owens, 1976). Aside from making history in the field of sports, Rudolph also paved the way for a historical moment in terms of race.   Buford Ellington, the governor of Tennessee, wanted to welcome Rudolph home after the Olympics (Roberts, 2007).   However, he believed in segregation; Rudolph obviously did not (Roberts, 2007).   She refused to show up to a segregated homecoming.   Fortunately for her and the town of Clarksville, Rudolph got what she wanted.   Rudolphs homecoming parade and banquet made Clarksville history as the first non-segregated event (Women in History, 2008).   Caucasians and African-Americans both had the opportunity to celebrate her Olympic success.   Her stand against segregation did not stop there; she also attended city protests until laws for segregation lost their effect (Women in History, 2008). After her Olympic victory, Rudolph became the recipient of numerous awards.   She became the recipient of The Babe Zaharias Award in 1962 (â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.).   In Dakar, Senegal, Rudolph also represented the United States as the Goodwill Ambassador at the Games of Friendship (Women in History, 2008).   Also that same year, she joined the Baptist Christian Athletes in Japan (Women in History, 2008).   In 1973, she was inducted in the Black Athletes Hall of Fame; the following year, she was included in the National Track and Field Hall of Fame (Roberts, 2007).   In 1983, she received two more honors: she was voted in the U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame, while also receiving the Vitalis Cup for Sports Excellence (â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.).   In 1984, she was honored with Womens Sports Foundation Award (â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.) Then there were those honors that were special, in the sense that Rudolph became the first woman ever in history to receive such award or invitation.  Ã‚   In 1961, she was the first woman recipient of the Christopher Columbus Award for Most Outstanding International Sports Personality (â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.).   The year after that, she was given the James E. Sullivan award (Lovett, 1997).   She was the first American female athlete to be honored as the Sportsman of the Year by European sportswriters (Owens, 1976).   Lastly, she became the first woman invited to the 1961 Penn Relays, the New York Athletic Club Track Meet, and the Millrose Games (â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.). Life After Retirement In 1962, at the age of 22, Rudolph retired from track and field (Lovett, 1997).   She had several jobs upon her return to Clarksville.   She first taught at Cobb Elementary, her alma mater (Women in History, 2008).   She then replaced Coach Gray as the track coach of her high school alma mater, Burt High School (Women in History, 2008).   Her first collegiate coaching job was in Maine; next, she became the track coach of DePauw University in Indiana (Women in History, 2008; Roberts, 2007).   She spoke to many students, as she was often invited as guest speaker in numerous schools and universities (Women in History, 2008).   She also became radio show co-host, as well as a sports commentator on television (Women in History, 2008).  Ã‚   In 1967, Rudolph was asked by Vice-President Hubert Humphrey to become a part of a sports outreach program for underprivileged kids called â€Å"Operation Champ† (Women in History, 2008).  Ã‚   Because of this experience, she cre ated the Wilma Rudolph Foundation, a non-profit community sports program for amateurs (Roberts, 2007).   In 1977, she released her autobiography entitled â€Å"Wilma: The Story of Wilma Rudolph† (Lovett, 1997).   The book was eventually turned into a television movie (Women in History, 2008).   In 1992, Rudolph became the vice-president of the Baptist Hospital in Nashville (Lovett, 1997). Death In July 1994, a few months after her mothers passing, Rudolph discovered that she had brain cancer (Lovett, 1997).   That same year, Rudolph died on November 12th.   Five days after her death, a memorial was held at the Kean Hall in TSU.   Her funeral was held at the First Baptist Church in Clarksville; all the flags in Tennessee were at half-mast (Lovett, 1997). Legacy Through her accomplishments, Rudolph inspired many other female African-American athletes to fulfill their Olympic dreams.   One of them was Florence Griffith Joyner.   She followed Rudolphs footsteps and became the second woman to bring home three gold medals in the 1988 Olympics (Roberts, 2007).   Rudolph said, â€Å"I thought Id never get to see that.   Florence Griffith Joyner – every time she ran, I ran (â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.).   Jackie Joyner-Kersee was another woman athlete whose life was touched by Rudolph.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Joyner-Kersee was an Olympic winner; she has six medals (Roberts, 2007).   According to Joyner-Kersee, â€Å"She was always in my corner.   If I had a problem, I could call her at home.   It was like talking to someone you knew for a lifetime† (as cited in Roberts, 2007). Several places and structures were also named after Rudolph.   Her alma mater, Tennessee State University, also rewarded her by naming their indoor track for her (Lovett, 1997).   In 1994, a part of Clarksvilles Highway 79 was also named after her.   In addition, a historical marker was placed in that very boulevard (â€Å"Historical Marker,† 2003). Tennessee State University had built a new dormitory, which was dedicated in her memory on August 11, 1995.   Rudolph had a bronze statue of her finished on April 1996; that statue was placed in Clarksville (Lovett, 1997). In 1997, Tennessee Governor Don Sundquist declared June 23rd as Wilma Rudolph day (Women in History, 2008). In its March 2002 issue, Ebony Magazine included Rudolph as one of the â€Å"greatest women athletes† (â€Å"10 Greatest Women Athletes,† 2002).   Lastly, in 2004, the U.S. Postal Service issued a postage stamp in her honor, as recognition for her accomplishments in sports (â€Å"Ho noring Wilma Rudolph,†2004). â€Å"The triumph cant be had without the struggle† (as cited in â€Å"Wilma Rudolph Biography,† n.d.).   These are the words of a woman who initially lived a life of struggle, but triumphantly overcame the odds.   She indeed an inspiration to many; her life is a testament to the triumph of the human spirit. nbsp; References Desert News (Salt Lake City). (2003). Historical marker honors Olympian Wilma Rudolph.   Retrieved March 7, 2008, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20030706/ai_n11411552 Ebony. (2002). 10 greatest women athletes. Retrieved March 7, 2008, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1077/is_5_57/ai_83450358 International Olympic Committee. (n.d.) Wilma Rudolph: overcoming childhood handicaps.   Retrieved March 5, 2008, from olympic.org/uk/athletes/profiles/bio_uk.asp?PAR_I_ID=10427 Jet. (2004). Honoring Wilma Rudolph. Retrieved March 7, 2008, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1355/is_7_106/ai_n6165658 Lovett, B. (1997). Wilma Rudolph and the TSU Tigerbelles. Leaders of Afro-American Nashville. Retrieved March 5, 2008, from EBSCO Database. Owens, J. (1976). Wilma Rudolph; gazelle of the track. The Saturday Evening Post. Retrieved March 5, 2008, from EBSCO Database. Roberts, M.B. (2007). Rudolph ran and the world went wild. ESPN.com.   Retrieved March 5, 2008, from http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00016444.html Wilma Rudolph. Garden of Praise.   Retrieved March 5, 2008, from http://gardenofpraise.com/ibdwilma.htm Wilma Rudolph Biography.   Retrieved March 5, 2008, from wilmarudolph.net/more.html Women in History. (2008). Wilma Rudolph. Retrieved March 5, 2008, from lkwdpl.org/wihohio/rudo-wil.htm nbsp;